Kung fu- - Chinese art

Kung fu/Kungfu or Gung fu/Gongfu  is a Chinese term referring to any study, learning, or practice that requires patience, energy, and time to complete, often used in the West to refer to Chinese martial arts, also known as Wushu. It is only in the late twentieth century, that this term was used in relation to Chinese Martial Arts by the Chinese community. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term "Kung-fu" as "a primarily unarmed Chinese martial art resembling karate.This illustrates how the meaning of this term has been changed in English. The origin of this change can be attributed to the misunderstanding or mistranslation of the term through movie subtitles or dubbing. In its original meaning, kung fu can refer to any skill achieved through hard work and practice, not necessarily martial arts. The Chinese literal equivalent of "Chinese martial art" would be 中國武術 zhōngguó wǔshù.

In Chinese, Gōngfu (功夫) is a compound of two words, combining 功 (gōng) meaning "work", "achievement", or "merit", and 夫 (fū) which is alternately treated as being a word for "man" or as a particle or nominal suffix with diverse meanings (the same character is used to write both). A literal rendering of the first interpretation would be "achievement of man", while the second is often described as "work and time/effort". Its connotation is that of an accomplishment arrived at by great effort of time and energy. In Mandarin, when two "first tone" words such as gōng and fū are combined, the second word often takes a neutral tone, in this case forming gōngfu. The word is also sometimes written as 工夫, this version often being used for more general, non-martial arts usages of the term.

Originally, to practice kung fu did not just mean to practice Chinese martial arts. Instead, it referred to the process of one's training - the strengthening of the body and the mind, the learning and the perfection of one's skills - rather than to what was being trained. It refers to excellence achieved through long practice in any endeavor. This meaning can be traced to classical writings, especially those of Neo-Confucianism, which emphasize the importance of effort in education.

In the colloquial, one can say that a person's kung fu is good in cooking, or that someone has kung fu in calligraphy; saying that a person possesses kung fu in an area implies skill in that area, which they have worked hard to develop. Someone with "bad kung fu" simply has not put enough time and effort into training, or seems to lack the motivation to do so. Kung fu is also a name used for the elaborate Fujian tea ceremony (kung fu cha).

However, the phrase 功夫武術 (kung fu wu shu) does exist in Chinese and could be (loosely) translated as 'the skills of the martial arts'..

YOGA- BEAUTY OF MIND

               Yoga  is the physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India with a view to attain a state of permanent peace of mind in order to experience one's true self. The term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate).The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali defines yoga as "the stilling of the changing states of the mind" Yoga has also been popularly defined as "union with the divine" in other contexts and traditions.

  Various traditions of yoga are found   in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. In Hinduism, yoga is one of the six āstika schools (accepts authority of Vedas) of Hindu philosophy.Yoga is also an important part of Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhist philosophy. Pre–philosophical speculations and diverse ascetic practices of first millennium BCE were systematized into a formal philosophy in early centuries CE by the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. By the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerged from tantra. It, along with its many modern variations, is the style that many people associate with the word yoga today. Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas, has a parallel series of asanas and pranayamas, such as caṇḍālī and trul khor.

                       Gurus from India later introduced yoga to the west, following the success of Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th and early 20th century.In the 1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world. This form of yoga is often called Hatha yoga. Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma, and heart disease. In a national survey, long-term yoga practitioners in the United States reported musculo–skeletal and mental health improvements.

ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE

Alzheimer's disease (AD), also known in medical literature as Alzheimer disease, is the most common form of dementia. There is no cure for the disease, which worsens as it progresses, and eventually leads to death. It was first described by German psychiatrist and neuropathologist Alois Alzheimer in 1906 and was named after him. Most often, AD is diagnosed in people over 65 years of age, although the less-prevalent early-onset Alzheimer's can occur much earlier. In 2006, there were 26.6 million people worldwide with AD. Alzheimer's is predicted to affect 1 in 85 people globally by 2050.

Although Alzheimer's disease develops differently for every individual, there are many common symptoms..Early symptoms are often mistakenly thought to be 'age-related' concerns, or manifestations of stress. In the early stages, the most common symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events, known as short term memory loss. When AD is suspected, the diagnosis is usually confirmed with tests that evaluate behaviour and thinking abilities, often followed by a brain scan if available, however, examination of brain tissue is required for a definitive diagnosis. As the disease advances, symptoms can include confusion, irritability, aggression, mood swings, trouble with language, and long-term memory loss. As the person declines they often withdraw from family and society. Gradually, bodily functions are lost, ultimately leading to death. Since the disease is different for each individual, predicting how it will affect the person is difficult. AD develops for an unknown and variable amount of time before becoming fully apparent, and it can progress undiagnosed for years. On average, the life expectancy following diagnosis is approximately seven years.Fewer than three percent of individuals live more than fourteen years after diagnosis.

The cause and progression of Alzheimer's disease are not well understood. Research indicates that the disease is associated with plaques and tangles in the brain. Current treatments only help with the symptoms of the disease. There are no available treatments that stop or reverse the progression of the disease. As of 2012, more than 1,000 clinical trial shave been or are being conducted to test various compounds in AD. Mental stimulation, exercise, and a balanced diethave been suggested as ways to delay cognitive symptoms (though not brain pathology) in healthy older individuals, but there is no conclusive evidence supporting an effect.It is classified as a neuron degenerative disorder.

Because AD cannot be cured and is degenerative, the person increasingly relies on others for assistance. The role of the main caregiver is often taken by the spouse or a close relative. Alzheimer's disease is known for placing a great burden on caregivers; the pressures can be wide-ranging, involving social, psychological, physical, and economic elements of the caregiver's life. In developed countries, AD is one of the most costly diseases to society

BIOFERTILIZER- GOOD FOR HEALTH AND EARTH

A biofertilizer (also bio-fertilizer) is a substance which contains living microorganisms which, when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. Bio-fertilizers add nutrients through the natural processes of nitrogen fixation, solubilizing phosphorus, and stimulating plant growth through the synthesis of growth-promoting substances. Bio-fertilizers can be expected to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The microorganisms in bio-fertilizers restore the soil's natural nutrient cycle and build soil organic matter. Through the use of bio-fertilizers, healthy plants can be grown, while enhancing the sustainability and the health of the soil. Since they play several roles, a preferred scientific term for such beneficial bacteria is "plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria" (PGPR). Therefore, they are extremely advantageous in enriching soil fertility and fulfilling plant nutrient requirements by supplying the organic nutrients through microorganism and their byproducts. Hence, bio-fertilizers do not contain any chemicals which are harmful to the living soil.

Bio-fertilizers provide eco-friendly organic agro-input and are more cost-effective than chemical fertilizers. Bio-fertilizers such as Rhizobium,Azotobacter, Azospirillum and blue green algae (BGA) have been in use a long time. Rhizobiuminoculant is used for leguminous crops.Azotobacter can be used with crops like wheat, maize, mustard, cotton, potato and other vegetable crops. Azospirillum inoculations are recommended mainly for sorghum, millets, maize, sugarcane and wheat. Blue green algae belonging to a general cyanobacteria genus,Nostoc or Anabaena or Tolypothrix or Aulosira, fix atmospheric nitrogen and are used as inoculations for paddy crop grown both under upland and low-land conditions. Anabaena in association with water fern Azolla contributes nitrogen up to 60 kg/ha/season and also enriches soils with organic matter.

Other types of bacteria, so-called phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, such as Pantoea agglomerans strain P5 or Pseudomonas putida strain P13, are able to solubilize the insoluble phosphate from organic and inorganic phosphate sources. In fact, due to immobilization of phosphate by mineral ions such as Fe, Al and Ca or organic acids, the rate of available phosphate (P_i) in soil is well below plant needs. In addition, chemical P_i fertilizers are also immobilized in the soil, immediately, so that less than 20 percent of added fertilizer is absorbed by plants. Therefore, reduction in P_i resources, on one hand, and environmental pollutions resulting from both production and applications of chemical P_i fertilizer, on the other hand, have already demanded the use of new generation of phosphate fertilizers globally known asphosphate-solubilizing bacteria or phosphate bio-fertilizers

A bio-fertilizer provides the following benefits:

1. Since a bio-fertilizer is technically living, it can symbiotically associate with plant roots. Involved microorganisms could readily and safely convert complex organic material in simple compounds, so that plants are easily taken up. Microorganism function is in long duration, causing improvement of the soil fertility. It maintains the natural habitat of the soil. It increases crop yield by 20-30%, replaces chemical nitrogen and phosphorus by 25%, and stimulates plant growth. It can also provide protection against drought and some soil-borne diseases.
2. Bio-fertilizers are cost-effective relative to chemical fertilizers. They have lower manufacturing costs, especially regarding nitrogen and phosphorus use.

Some important groups of Bio-fertilizers

1. Azolla-Anabena symbiosis: Azolla is a small, eukaryotic, aquatic fern having global distribution.Prokaryotic blue green algae Anabena azolla resides in its leaves as a symbiont. Azolla is an alternative nitrogen source. This association has gained wide interest because of its potential use as an alternative to chemical fertilizers.
2. Rhizobium: Symbiotic nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium with legumes contribute substantially to total nitrogen fixation. Rhizobium inoculation is a well-known agronomic practice to ensure adequate nitrogen

Mohiniyattam, - a classical dance form from Kerala, India

Mohiniyattam, also spelled Mohiniattam , is a classical dance form from Kerala, India. Believed to have originated in 16th century CE, it is one of the eight Indian classical dance forms recognised by the Sangeet Natak Akademi. It is considered a very graceful form of dance meant to be performed as solo recitals by women.

Mohiniyattam was popularised as a popular dance form in the nineteenth century by Swathi Thirunal, the Maharaja of the state of Travancore (Southern Kerala), and Vadivelu, one of the Thanjavur Quartet. Swathi Thirunal promoted the study of Mohiniyattam during his reign, and is credited with the composition of many music arrangements and vocal accompaniments that provide musical background for modern Mohiniyattam dancers. The noted Malayalam poet Vallathol, who established the Kerala Kalamandalam dance school in 1930, played an important role in popularizing Mohiniattam in the 20th century.

The term Mohiniyattam comes from the words "Mohini" meaning a woman who enchants onlookers and "aattam" meaning graceful and sensuous body movements. The word "Mohiniyattam" literally means "dance of the enchantress". There are two stories of the Lord Vishnu disguised as a Mohini. In one, he appears as Mohini to lure the asuras (demons) away from the amrita (nectar of immortality) obtained during the churning of the palazhi (ocean of milk and salt water).

In the second story Vishnu appears as Mohini to save Lord Shiva from the demon Bhasmasura. The name Mohiniyattam may have been coined after Lord Vishnu; the main theme of the dance is love and devotion to God, with usually Vishnu or Krishna being the hero. Devadasis used to perform this in temples. It also has elements of Koothu and Kottiyattom. Mohiniyattam is a drama in dance and verse.

The dance involves the swaying of broad hips and the gentle movements of erect posture from side to side. This is reminiscent of the swinging of the palm leaves and the gently flowing rivers which abound Kerala, the land of Mohiniyattam. There are approximately 40 basic movements, known as atavukal.

The three pillars — Sri Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma, Sri Vallathol Narayana Menon (a poet and founder of the institution, Kerala Kalamandalam) and Smt. Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma (considered “the mother of Mohiniyattam”) — contributed to the shaping out of the contemporary Mohiniyattam during the later part of the 20th century. Guru Kallyanikutty Amma cleared the mythical mystery behind the name of this dance form and gave it the most convincing explanation based on truth, social and historical evolution, interpreting Mohiniyattam as the dance of a beautiful lady than that of a mythical enchantress from heaven.

The costume includes white sari embroidered with bright golden brocade (known as kasavu) at the edges. The dance follows the classical text of Hastha Lakshanadeepika, which has elaborate description of mudras (gestural expressions by the hand palm and fingers).

The Jewellery our traditional dancers wear is the typical complete set of Temple Golden Finish Jewellery with a proper wide Golden Lakshmi belt specially designed for Mohiniyattam. The foot steps are made tinkling with a good pair of original Chilanka or either known as Ghungroo or Dancing bells worn by the dancer on her legs. The performer also adorns herself with Fresh white Jasmine flowers which is decked to her hair bun arranged on the left side of the head pinned on to a beautiful Jurapin, which makes Mohiniyattam artists distinct from other dance forms artists of India.

The vocal music of Mohiniyattam involves variations in rhythmic structure known as chollu. The lyrics are in Manipravalam, a mixture of Sanskrit and Malayalam. The Mohiniyattam dance is performed to this accompaniment by the subtle gestures and footwork of the danseuse. The performer uses the eyes in a very coy, sensual manner to enchant the mind without enticing the senses.

EMILY DICKINSON-AND HER POETRY

Emily Dickinson, ‘the Belle of Amherst’ was an American poet and is considered one of the most original of 19th century American poets. She was born in Amherst, Massachusetts on December 10, 1830. Throughout her life she seldom left her house and led a secluded life, except for the short time when she attended Amherst Academy and Holyoke Female Seminary, until her death on May 15, 1886 due to Bright’s disease. Emily was an energetic and outgoing woman while attending the Academy and Seminary. It was later, during her midtwenties that she began to grow reclusive.

DICKINSON AND HER POETRY

 Emily Dickinson’s poems have many distinguishable features. The poet reflects her loneliness and the speaker’s of her poems generally live in a state of want. The major themes in her poetry include friends, nature , love and death. Adrienne Rich once said “Dickinson is the American poet whose work consisted

in exploring states of psychic extremity”. Most of her love poems are psychological and autobiographical. Dickinson never married, but reading her poems we understand that she was in love at least one point in her life. She uses the syllogistic method of reasoning to describe the importance of love that she had in her life. She says that love is life, life is eternal and therefore love is eternal.

 “That I shall love always

I argue thee 

That love is life-

 And life hath immortality-” 

The poem “I cannot live without you” is considered the best love poem and the most famous love poem by Dickinson. She pictures the feelings of two lovers who cannot live together, cannot die together, and cannot rise after death together, cannot be judged by God together. All they can do is to maintain the possibility of communication though oceans apart.

“So we must keep apart 

You there, I here, 

With just the door ajar

 That oceans are,

 And prayer 

And that pale sustenance Despair” 

As Dickinson’s life was marked by witnessing a series of deaths, the tragic deaths of those close to her we find death becoming a recurrent theme in most of her lyrics. She maintains an ambivalent attitude towards death; death being a terror and death as a relief through which she can move towards immortality. Death is personified in many poems. In the poem “Because I could not stop for Death” death is personified as a gentle, courteous and polite man who takes her on a ride in a carriage.

“Because I could not stop for death

 He kindly stopped for me” 

She travels along different ways and sees different things all along this journey. 

“We passed the fields of Gazing Grain

 We passed the setting sun”

In the end she speaks of ‘eternity’, death leads us to an eternal world. 

She speaks of God and heaven in her religious poems.

 She craves for a day when she will be able to meet God.

 “I went to heaven

‘T was a small town,

 …. 

Beautiful as pictures 

No man drew”

 The poem “I heard a Fly buzz- when I died” is told by a dead woman who is still speaking and hearing things. Lying on her death bed, surrounded by her family, she claims “I heard a Fly buzz – when I died”. She is irritated by the presence of the buzz which distracts the attention of the kith and kin surrounding her. In this poem death is seen as an extension of life, death as the beginning of an eternal life. Pain and suffering run all through Dickinson’s poems. She speaks about the two aspects of pain, its timelessness and its irresistible dominance.

 “Pain has an element of blank;

It cannot recollect 

When it began, or if there was 

A time when it was not” 

Most of her lyrics, though on the surface level seem to be mere short moral sayings have deep underlying meaning beneath. She writes aphoristically by compressing a great deal of meaning into a very small number of words. Many of her poems’ allusions come from her education in the Bible, classical mythology and Shakespeare. Dickinson did not give titles to her poems and often the first line of the poem is used as the title. She wrote short lines, preferring to be concise in her images and references and the poems did not have more than six stanzas. The rhythm in most of her poems is called the common meter or ballad meter. Both types of meter consist of a quatrain with the first and third lines having four iambic feet and the second and fourth lines having three iambic feet. She had a complete disregard for the rules of grammar and sentence

structure as a result of which she is said to anticipate the way modern poets use language. Her compressed use of language often becomes incomprehensible; the language instead of communicating confuses us.

VIRGINIA WOOLF

Virginia Woolf, the English author, feminist, essayist, publisher and critic, was one of the founders of modernist movement. Adeline Virginia Stephen was born on 25th January 1882 in London, as the daughter of Leslie Stephen, a manof letters and Julia Jackson Duckworth, a member of Duckworth publishing

family. Her youth was a traumatic one shadowed by a series of emotional shocks, with the early deaths of her mother and brother, a history of sexual abuse andthe beginnings of a depressive mental illness that plagued her intermittently throughout her life. Following the death of her father in 1904, Woolf, along with her sister and two brothers moved to the house in Bloomsbury where they befriended Leonard Woolf, Clive Bell, Lytton Strachey and Maynard Keynes. This was the nucleus of Bloomsbury group. Later in 1912 she married Leonard Woolf, the political theorist, writer and critic. Woolf’s books were published by Hogarth

Press, which she founded with her husband. During the Nazi invasion, Woolf and Leonard made provisions to kill themselves. After the final attack of menta  illness, Woolf loaded her pockets full of stones and drowned herself in the river Ouse on March 28, 1941. On her note to her husband she wrote “I have a feeling I shall go mad. I cannot go on longer in these terrible times. I hear voices and cannot concentrate on my work. I have fought against it but cannot fight any longer. I owe all my happiness to you but cannot go on and spoil your life.” The Voyage Out (1915) was Woolf’s first book. Her other works include Jacob’s Room (1922), Mrs. Dalloway (1925)To the Light House (1927), The Waves (1931) Orlando: A Biography (1928), A Room of One’s Own (1929) and Three Guineas (1938)

¿Qué es el periodismo ?

¿Qué es el periodismo ?
El periodismo es un arte y una profesión que registra los eventos y opiniones, y trata de interpretar y moldearlos para el beneficio del público educado . El periodismo es cualquier cosa que contribuya de alguna manera en la recolección , selección, procesamiento de noticias y temas de actualidad para la prensa, la radio, la televisión, el cine , cable , internet, etc Se trata de una disciplina de la recopilación, análisis , verificación y presentación de noticias en relación con la corriente eventos, tendencias , temas y personas. Los que practican el periodismo son conocidos como periodistas . Periodismo es definido por Denis McQuail como pagado a escribir para los medios públicos con referencia a los acontecimientos reales y actuales de relevancia pública .
Principios y funciones del periodismo
El propósito central del periodismo es ofrecer a los ciudadanos información precisa y fidedigna que necesitan para funcionar en una sociedad libre . Este objetivo también incluye otros requisitos tales como ser entretenido , que actúa como organismo de control y ofrecer servicios de voz a los sin voz . El periodismo ha desarrollado nueve ideales esenciales para cumplir con la tarea.
1 . La primera obligación del periodismo es la verdad :
Periodismo no persigue la verdad en un sentido absoluto o filosófica , sino que puede y debe perseguir en un sentido práctico. Esta verdad periodística es un proceso que comienza con la disciplina profesional de montaje y la verificación de los hechos .
2 . Su primera lealtad es con los ciudadanos :
Los periodistas deben mantener la lealtad a los ciudadanos y el interés público por encima de cualquier otro si se quiere proporcionar las noticias sin temor ni favor . Este compromiso con los ciudadanos en primer lugar es la base de las organizaciones de noticias credibilidad ; para contar la audiencia que la cobertura de noticias no está inclinada para los amigos o los anunciantes. Compromiso con los ciudadanos también implica el periodismo debería presentar una imagen representativa de todos los grupos constitutivos de la sociedad.
3 . Su esencia es la disciplina de la verificación :
Los periodistas se basan en la disciplina profesional para verificar la información . Pidió un método consistente de información de pruebas - un enfoque transparente a la evidencia - precisamente para que los prejuicios personales y culturales no socavaría la precisión de su trabajo .
4 . Sus practicantes deben mantener una independencia con respecto a los que cubren :
La independencia es un requisito fundamental del periodismo , una piedra angular de su fiabilidad . Independencia de espíritu y de mente más que la neutralidad es que los periodistas principales deben mantener en foco.
5 . Debe servir como un monitor independiente del poder:
Periodismo tiene una capacidad inusual para servir como guardián de aquellos cuyo poder y posición más afectaciudadanos. Como periodistas , uno tiene la obligación de proteger esta libertad de vigilancia al no degradar en uso frívolo o explotarla para obtener beneficios comerciales .
6 . Debe proporcionar un foro para la crítica pública y el compromiso :
Los medios de comunicación son las empresas de transporte público de la discusión pública. Este debate sirve a la sociedad mejor cuando es informado por los hechos en lugar de los prejuicios y suposiciones. Exactitud y veracidad exige que como autores de los periodistas de discusión pública no descuidar los puntos de un terreno común donde se produce la resolución de problemas.
7 . Debe esforzarse en hacer el significativo interesante y relevante :
Periodismo es contar historias con un propósito. Debe esforzarse en hacer el significativo interesante y relevante . La eficacia de una pieza de periodismo se mide tanto por la cantidad de una obra se dedica a su público y lo ilumina . Esto significa que los periodistas deben preguntarse continuamente qué información tiene más valor a los ciudadanos y en qué forma .
8 . Se debe mantener la noticia completa y proporcional :
Mantener noticias en proporción y ni dejar las cosas importantes a cabo también son piedras angulares de la veracidad.Inflar los eventos para la sensación , descuidando otros, escribiendo música o estar desproporcionadamente negativo todo lo hace menos confiable. También debe incluir las noticias de todas las comunidades , no sólo aquellos con la demografía atractivos.
9 . Sus practicantes se les debe permitir ejercer su conciencia personal :
Cada periodista debe tener un sentido personal de la ética y la responsabilidad - una brújula moral. Cada uno de ellos debe estar dispuesto , si la imparcialidad y precisión requiere , para expresar las diferencias con sus colegas , ya sea en la sala de prensa o la suite ejecutiva .
Periodismo como profesión
Imprimir el periodismo multimedia
El periodismo de medios de impresión presenta diversa información a través de periódicos, revistas y libros. Los profesionales de esta corriente son - el personal, los corresponsales enviados especiales , los editores de noticias , jefe -editores , comentaristas políticos , caricaturistas , columnistas, articulistas , escritores de contenido para la revista , etc
el periodismo de radio
El periodismo de radio que funciona para transmitir noticias y diversa información a través de un importante medio de comunicación masiva entre los trabajadores y los dueños de casa . Periodistas de radio están bien versados ​​en el funcionamiento de equipos de grabación de sonido , micrófonos y sistemas de megafonía . También deben ser eficientes en la grabación de datos digitales , operaciones de la red , sistemas de audio y computadoras
periodismo televisivo
TV es una herramienta de comunicación audiovisual. Se requiere la atención de los dos sentidos de la persona - audio y visual dirigida. De ahí que el periodista de la televisión no sólo tiene que dar agradable música , voz u otras señales de audio al público objetivo , pero también tiene para hipnotizar a ellos con la ayuda de su personalidad, el manierismo , secuencias de video y combinaciones adecuadas.
ciberperiodismo
Internet es una fuente de información de todo tipo . Periodista Internet es una persona que crea mensajes que se mostrarán en los sitios web que se van a leer , ver o escuchar por un público muy amplio . Los profesionales de esta nueva corriente son amos de la tela ; especialistas en multimedia , HTML y XHTML programadores , especialistas en Java y otros profesionales que crean y modifican los anuncios de la red. También crean sitios web que son herramientas de comunicación de masas.
Función y responsabilidades de un periodista
El deber principal de un periodista es la de actuar como intérprete del mundo que los rodea . El periodista observa los acontecimientos , transmite datos sobre el evento y actuar como intérprete de estos eventos y acontecimientos .
Un periodista lleva a cabo las siguientes funciones :
1 . Dar a conocer el mundo contemporáneo.
2 . Informar y educar a la audiencia .
3 . Promover el arte y la cultura.
4 . Entretener a la masa .
5 . Ayudar a las personas en la toma de decisiones .
6 . Hacer que la gente sensible a las cuestiones candentes .
7 . Inculcar buenos valores morales.
8 . Advierta a la gente de sus derechos.
9 . Ayudar a las personas en el estudio comparativo del pasado y del presente y en la predicción del futuro.
El informe MacBride detalla las responsabilidades periodísticas como :
1 . Responsabilidad contractual en relación con sus medios y su organización interna.
2 . Una responsabilidad social que implica obligaciones para con la opinión pública y la sociedad en su conjunto
3 . Responsabilidad alguna derivada de la obligación de cumplir con la ley.
4 . Responsabilidad para con la comunidad internacional en relación al respeto de los valores humanos.

INTRODUCTION TO JOURNALISM

What is journalism?

Journalism is both an art and a profession which records events and opinions and seeks to interpret and mould them for the benefit of the educated public. Journalism is anything that contributes in some way in gathering, selection, processing of news and current affairs for the press, radio, television, film, cable, internet, etc. It is a discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying and presenting news regarding current events, trends, issues and people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists. Journalism is defined by Denis McQuail as paid writing for public media with reference to actual and ongoing events of public relevance.

Principles and functions of journalism

The central purpose of journalism is to provide citizens with accurate and reliable information they need to function in a free society. This purpose also involves other requirements such as being entertaining, serving as watchdog and offering voice to the voiceless. Journalism has developed nine core ideals to meet the task.

1. Journalism’s first obligation is to the truth:

Journalism does not pursue truth in an absolute or philosophical sense, but it can and must pursue it in a practical sense. This journalistic truth is a process that begins with the professional discipline of assembling

and verifying facts.

2. Its first loyalty is to citizens:

Journalists must maintain loyalty to citizens and the larger public interest above any other if they are to provide the news without fear or favour. This commitment to citizens first is the basis of news organizations credibility; to tell audience that news coverage is not slanted for friends or advertisers. Commitment to citizens also means journalism should present a representative picture of all constituent groups in society.

3. Its essence is disciplines of verification:

Journalists rely on professional discipline for verifying information. It called for a consistent method of testing information- a transparent approach to evidence- precisely so that personal and cultural biases would not undermine the accuracy of their work.

4. Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover:

Independence is an underlying requirement of journalism, a cornerstone of its reliability. Independence of spirit and mind rather than neutrality is the principle journalists must keep in focus.

5. It must serve as an independent monitor of power:

Journalism has an unusual capacity to serve as watchdog over those whose power and position most affects

citizens. As journalists, one has an obligation to protect this watchdog freedom by not demeaning it in frivolous use or exploiting it for commercial gains.

6. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise: 

The news media are the common carriers of public discussion. This discussion serves society best when it is informed by facts rather than prejudice and supposition. Accuracy and truthfulness requires that as framers of the public discussion journalists do not neglect the points of common ground where problem solving occurs.

7. It must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant:

Journalism is storytelling with a purpose. It must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant. The effectiveness of a piece of journalism is measured both by how much a work engages its audience and enlightens it. This means journalists must continually ask what information has most value to citizens and in what form.

8. It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional:

Keeping news in proportion and nor leaving important things out are also cornerstones of truthfulness.

Inflating events for sensation, neglecting others, stereo typing or being disproportionately negative all makes it less reliable. It should also include news of all communities, not just those with attractive demographics.

9. Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience:

Every journalist must have a personal sense of ethics and responsibility- a moral compass. Each of them must be willing if fairness and accuracy requires, to voice differences with colleagues, whether in the newsroom or the executive suite.

Journalism as a profession

Print media journalism

Print media journalism presents various information through newspapers, magazines and books. Professionals of this stream are – staff correspondents, special correspondents, news editors, chief-editors, political commentators, cartoonists, columnists, feature writers, content writers for magazine etc.

Radio journalism

Radio journalism works for broadcasting news and various information through an important medium of mass communication among workers and householders. Radio journalists are well versed with the operations of sound recording equipments, microphones and public address systems. They must also be efficient in digital data recording, operations of the net, audio systems and computers

TV journalism

TV is an audiovisual communication tool. It requires the attention of two senses of the targeted individual- audio and visual. Hence the TV journalist has not only to give pleasing music, voice, or other audio signals to the targeted audience but also has to mesmerize them with the help of his personality, mannerism, video footage and appropriate colour combinations.

Cyber journalism

Internet is a source of all kind of information. Internet journalist is a person who creates messages to be displayed on the web sites that are to be read, viewed or listened to by a very large audience. Professionals of this new stream are web masters; multimedia specialists, HTML and XHTML programmers, Java specialists and other professionals who create and modify advertisements for the NET. They also create web sites which are mass communication tools.

Role and responsibilities of a journalist

The main duty of a journalist is to act as an interpreter of the world around. The journalist observes the events, transmits facts about the event and act as an interpreter of these events and happenings.

A journalist performs the following roles:

1. Make people aware of the contemporary world.

2. Inform and educate the audience.

3. Promote art and culture.

4. Entertain the mass.

5. Help people in decision making.

6. Make people sensitive to burning issues.

7. Instill good moral values.

8. Make people aware of their rights.

9. Help people in comparative study of past and present and in predicting future.

The MacBride report spells out journalistic responsibilities as:

1. Contractual responsibility in relation to their media and their internal organization.

2. A social responsibility entailing obligations towards public opinion and society as a whole

3. Responsibility or liability deriving from the obligation to comply with the law.

4. Responsibility towards the international community relating to respect for human values.

FUTURE OF THE EARTH

The biological and geological future of the Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences. These include the chemistry at the Earth's surface, the rate of cooling of the planet's interior, the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System, and a steady increase in the Sun's luminosity. An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans, such as geoengineering, which could cause significant changes to the planet. The current biotic crisis is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years. In turn, technology may result in the extinction of humanity, leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes.

Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years, random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere, which can result in mass extinctions. These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5–10 km (3.1–6.2 mi) or more, and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion, called a supernova, within a 100-light-year radius from the Sun, called a Near-Earth supernova. Other large-scale geological events are more predictable. If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded, Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the quaternary glaciation comes to an end. These periods are caused by eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession of the Earth's orbit. As part of the ongoing super continent cycle, plate tectonics will probably result in a super continent in 250–350 million years. Some time in the next 1.5–4.5 billion years, the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations, with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90°.

During the next four billion years, the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase, resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth. This will cause a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals, which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In about 600 million years, the level of CO

2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C₃ carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees. Some plants use the C₄ carbon fixation method, allowing them to persist at CO

2 concentrations as low as 10 parts per million. However, the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether. The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life, since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth.

In about 1.1 billion years, the solar luminosity will be 10% higher than at present. This will cause the atmosphere to become a "moist greenhouse", resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans. As a likely consequence, plate tectonics will come to an end. Following this event, the planet's magnetic dynamo may come to an end, causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere. Four billion years from now, the increase in the Earth's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect. By that point, most if not all the life on the surface will be extinct.. The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years, after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet's current orbit.

HUMAN BEAUTY

The characterization of a person as “beautiful”, whether on an individual basis or by community consensus, is often based on some combination of inner beauty, which includes psychological factors such as personality, intelligence, grace, politeness, charisma, integrity,congruence and elegance, and outer beauty (i.e. physical attractiveness) which includes physical attributes which are valued on an aesthetic basis.

Standards of beauty have changed over time, based on changing cultural values. Historically, paintings show a wide range of different standards for beauty. However, humans who are relatively young, with smooth skin, well-proportioned bodies, and regular features, have traditionally been considered the most beautiful throughout history.

A strong indicator of physical beauty is "averageness", or "koinophilia". When images of human faces are averaged together to form a composite image, they become progressively closer to the "ideal" image and are perceived as more attractive. This was first noticed in 1883, when Francis Galton, cousin of Charles Darwin, overlaid photographic composite images of the faces of vegetarians and criminals to see if there was a typical facial appearance for each. When doing this, he noticed that the composite images were more attractive compared to any of the individual images.

A feature of beautiful women that has been explored by researchers is a waist–hip ratio of approximately 0.70. Physiologists have shown that women with hourglass figures are more fertile than other women due to higher levels of certain female hormones, a fact that may subconsciously condition males choosing mates.Researchers have replicated the result under more controlled conditions and found that the computer generated, mathematical average of a series of faces is rated more favorably than individual faces. Evolutionarily, it makes logical sense that sexual creatures should be attracted to mates who possess predominantly common or average features.

People are influenced by the images they see in the media to determine what is or is not beautiful. Some feminists and doctors have suggested that the very thin models featured in magazines promote eating disorders, and others have argued that the predominance of white women featured in movies and advertising leads to a Eurocentric concept of beauty, feelings of inferiority in women of color, and internalized racism.

The black is beautiful cultural movement sought to dispel this notion.

The concept of beauty in men is known as 'bishōnen' in Japan. Bishōnen refers to males with distinctly feminine features, physical characteristics establishing the standard of beauty in Japan and typically exhibited in their pop culture idols. A multi-billion-dollar industry of Japanese Aesthetic Salons exists for this reason.

Ronaldo - Greatest football player

Ronaldo Luís Nazário de Lima born 18 September 1976) commonly known as Ronaldo, is a retired Brazilian footballer. Popularly dubbed "the phenomenon", he is considered by experts and fans to be one of the greatest football players of all time..He is one of only three men to have won the FIFA World Player of the Year award three times or more, along with Zinedine Zidane andLionel Messi. He won his first Ballon d'Or in 1997 and won the award again in 2002.

Considered by many the most complete striker in the past thirty years, in 2007 he was named a member of the best starting eleven of all-time by France Football and was named to the FIFA 100, a list of the greatest footballers compiled by Pelé. In 2010, he was voted Goal.com's "Player of the Decade" in an online poll, gathering 43.63 percent of all votes and was also included as centre forward in the "Team of the Decade". In February 2010, Ronaldo announced that he would retire after the 2011 season, signing a two-year contract extension with Corinthians at the same time.

Ronaldo played for Brazil in 98 matches, scoring 62 goals, and is the second highest goalscorer for his national team. Aged 17, he was a part of the Brazilian squad that won the 1994 FIFA World Cup. At the 1998 World Cup he helped Brazil reach the final and won the Golden Ball for player of the tournament. He won a second World Cup in 2002 where he received the Golden Boot as top goalscorer. During the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Ronaldo became the highest goalscorer in World Cup history with his fifteenth goal, surpassing Gerd Müller's previous record of fourteen.

Having suffered a string of serious injuries throughout his career, Ronaldo retired on 14 February 2011, citing pain and hypothyroidism as the reasons for his premature retirement. In January 2013 he was named one of the six Ambassadors of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, the others being Amarildo, Bebeto, Carlos Alberto Torres,Marta and Mario Zagallo

'Mending Wall'-poem-and summary--Robert Frost

                                           Robert Frost

The poet was born on 26th March, 1874 Frost’s parents were of Scottish and English descent and he lived in California and Sanfransisco during his early years. Frost's father was a teacher, and later he became the editor of the San Francisco Evening Bulletin .The poet lived in close association with rural life durin his early days and moved to the city later. So he frequently uses themes from rural life in New England in his poems. Most of his poems centre around complex, social and philosophical themes. He ranks one among the best American poets and was honoured for receiving four Pulitzer Prizes. His first poem, "My Butterfly: An Elegy" was published in the

November 8, 1894 edition of the New York Independent. He married Elinor Miriam White, and attended Harvard University for two years. Frost ‘s grandfather purchased a farm for the young couple in Derry, New Hampshire, and Frost worked on the farm for nine years and wrote many of the poems that later became famous. His attempts at farming were not successful and Frost returned to education as an English teacher at Pinkerton Academy from 1906 to 1911, then at the New Hampshire Normal School . In 1912, Frost sailed with his family to Great Britain, and his first book of poetry, A Boy's Will, was published the next year. In England he got the acquaintance of all the leading poets of the time. When the first world war began Frost returned to America in 1915 and resumed his vocation as a teacher and poet. He died a little more than two years later, in Boston, on January 29, 1963.

            

          Mending Wall"

Something there is that doesn't love a wall,

That sends the frozen-ground-swell under it,

And spills the upper boulders in the sun;

And makes gaps even two can pass abreast.

The work of hunters is another thing:

I have come after them and made repair

Where they have left not one stone on a stone,

But they would have the rabbit out of hiding,

To please the yelping dogs. The gaps I mean,

No one has seen them made or heard them made,

But at spring mending-time we find them there.

I let my neighbour know beyond the hill;

And on a day we meet to walk the line

And set the wall between us once again.

We keep the wall between us as we go.

To each the boulders that have fallen to each.

And some are loaves and some so nearly balls

We have to use a spell to make them balance:

"Stay where you are until our backs are turned!"

We wear our fingers rough with handling them.

Oh, just another kind of out-door game,

One on a side. It comes to little more:

There where it is we do not need the wall:

He is all pine and I am apple orchard.

My apple trees will never get across

And eat the cones under his pines, I tell him.

He only says, "Good fences make good neighbours."

Spring is the mischief in me, and I wonder

If I could put a notion in his head:

"Why do they make good neighbours? Isn't it

Where there are cows? But here there are no cows.

Before I built a wall I'd ask to know

What I was walling in or walling out,

And to whom I was like to give offence.

Something there is that doesn't love a wall,

That wants it down." I could say "Elves" to him,

But it's not elves exactly, and I'd rather

He said it for himself. I see him there

Bringing a stone grasped firmly by the top

In each hand, like an old-stone savage armed.

He moves in darkness as it seems to me,

Not of woods only and the shade of trees.

He will not go behind his father's saying,

And he likes having thought of it so well

He says again, "Good fences make good neighbors."

                     Poem Summary

In “The Mending Wall” Robert Frost makes use of the image of a wall to drive home the lesson that people unnecessarily create boundaries around themselves. The wall separating the farm of two neighbors is introduced as a primary symbol in the poem. Frost begins the poem by stating that there is something in nature that does not like wall. So it swells the ground beneath and manages to disintegrate the wall to such an extent that even two men can pass abreast through the opening. The poet is sure that the destruction of walls is not the work of rabbit hunters. The force that destroys the wall is unnameable. There is a mystery about who or what doesn't like a wall. No one has seen the holes being made but at springtime there are big holes in the wall.The narrator and his neighbour meet on a specified date and rebuild the wall. Rebuilding the wall is a laborious task. The stones are uneven in size and shape and they have to balance them delicately.They are tired by the time the wall is rebuilt.The speaker reinforces the idea that these breaks created by nature are more mysterious than those made by the hunters. This action cannot be observed, though the effects are consistent year after year. The speaker (poet) does not like a wall. He keeps rebuilding it only to please his neighbor. Very humorously Frost says:

“He is all pine and I am apple orchard.

My apple trees will never get across

And eat the cones under his pines, I tell him.”

Both of them have different crops in their orchard. The pine cones will not walk up and eat the apples or vice versa. Yet his neighbour insists on building walls saying that good fences make good neighbours. The separation between them is also emphasized in the fact that they walk on opposite sides of the wall and as they are each responsible for replacing the stones that have fallen on each one’s side. While they are performing this act together, they do not actually assist each other.

Frost’s tone becomes playful in the lines, when he says that farmers often use fences to keep their livestock separated. Such a fence is unnecessary because they have only pine and apple trees, not cows or cattle. Again, the speaker considers trying to provoke his neighbor with practical objections, but he never makes this statement out loud.

In the concluding sections, Frost becomes philosophical and speculates abstractly. He wants to know what they are “walling in” and “walling out.” The double function of a wall is addressed, for not only are outsiders prevented from entry, but insiders are trapped inside. The speaker considers the possibility that walls “give offence” as he himself seems to be slightly offended, but he never reaches a conclusion about what it is within himself that is either walled in or walled out. Nor does he say that he himself doesn't love a wall, only that “something” doesn't  He muses that “Elves” might have destroyed their wall. In the speaker’s eyes the neighbor resembles a savage, an old storage man armed with a stone. He implies that the neighbor is also using the stones as weapons; he is “armed.” In a sense, then, the fence becomes a weapon, even if its purpose is primarily defense. The speaker then moves from thoughts of the Stone Age to thoughts of the Dark Ages, where darkness functions as a symbol for a lack of insight that is understood as progress. His darkness is more than physical darkness provided by the shade. There is also emotional darkness in his refusal to leave the wall unmended. Frost concludes saying that his neighbor will not change his ideas, nor will he give up the practices set forth by his father. Like a savage the man keeps repeating “Good fences make good neighbors”.

Satellite television

Satellite television is television programming delivered by the means of communications satellite and received by an outdoor antenna, usually a parabolic reflector generally referred to as a satellite dish, and as far as household usage is concerned, a satellite receiver either in the form of an external set-top box or a satellite tuner module built into a television set. Satellite television tuners are also available as a card or a USB peripheral to be attached to a personal computer. In many areas of the world satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, often to areas that are not serviced by terrestrial or cable providers.

Direct-broadcast satellite television comes to the general public in two distinct flavors – analog and digital. This necessitates either having an analog satellite receiver or a digital satellite receiver. Analog satellite television is being replaced by digital satellite television and the latter is becoming available in a better quality known as high-definition television.

Satellites used for television signals are generally in either naturally highly elliptical (with inclination of +/-63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve hours, also known as Molniya orbit) or geostationary orbit 37,000 km (23,000 mi) above the earth's equator.

Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting antenna located at an up link facility. Up link satellite dishes are very large, as much as 9 to 12 meters (30 to 40 feet) in diameter. The increased diameter results in more accurate aiming and increased signal strength at the satellite. The uplink dish is pointed toward a specific satellite and the up linked signals are transmitted within a specific frequency range, so as to be received by one of the transponders tuned to that frequency range aboard that satellite. The transponder 'retransmits' the signals back to Earth but at a different frequency band (a process known as translation, used to avoid interference with the uplink signal), typically in the C-band (4–8 GHz) or K_u-band (12–18 GHz) or both. The leg of the signal path from the satellite to the receiving Earth station is called the downlink.

A typical satellite has up to 32 transponders for Ku-band and up to 24 for a C-band only satellite, or more for hybrid satellites. Typical transponders each have a bandwidth between 27 and 50 MHz. Each geostationary C-band satellite needs to be spaced 2° from the next satellite to avoid interference; for K_u. the spacing can be 1°. This means that there is an upper limit of 360/2 = 180 geostationary C-band satellites and 360/1 = 360 geostationary K_u-band satellites. C-band transmission is susceptible to terrestrial interference while K_u-band transmission is affected by rain (as water is an excellent absorbed of microwaves at this particular frequency). The latter is even more adversely affected by ice crystals in thunder clouds.

On occasion, sun outage will occur when the sun lines up directly behind the geostationary satellite the reception antenna is pointing to. This will happen twice a year at around midday for a two-week period in the spring and in the fall, and affects both the C-band and the K_u-band. The line-up swamps out all reception for a few minutes due to the sun emitting microwaves on the same frequencies used by the satellite's transponders.

The down linked satellite signal, quite weak after traveling the great distance (see inverse-square law), can be collected by using a parabolic receiving dish, which reflects the weak signal to the dish's focal point. Mounted on brackets at the dish's focal point is a device called a feed horn. This feed horn is essentially the flared front-end of a section of wave guide that gathers the signals at or near the focal point and 'conducts' them to a probe or pickup connected to a low-noise block down converter or LNB. The LNB amplifies the relatively weak signals, filters the block of frequencies in which the satellite television signals are transmitted, and converts the block of frequencies to a lower frequency range in the L-band range. The evolution of LNBs was one of necessity and invention.

The original C-Band satellite television systems used a Low Noise Amplifier connected to the feed horn at the focal point of the dish. The amplified signal was then fed via very expensive and sometimes 50 ohm impedance gas filled hardline coaxial cable to an indoor receiver or, in other designs, fed to a down converter (a mixer and a voltage tuned oscillator with some filter circuitry) for down conversion to an intermediate frequency. The channel selection was controlled, typically by a voltage tuned oscillator with the tuning voltage being fed via a separate cable to the headend. But this design evolved.

Designs for microstrip based converters for Amateur Radio frequencies were adapted for the 4 GHz C-Band. Central to these designs was concept of block downconversion of a range of frequencies to a lower, and technologically more easily handled block of frequencies (intermediate frequency).

The advantages of using an LNB are that cheaper cable could be used to connect the indoor receiver with the satellite television dish and LNB, and that the technology for handling the signal at L-Band and UHF was far cheaper than that for handling the signal at C-Band frequencies. The shift to cheaper technology from the 50 Ohm impedance cable and N-Connectors of the early C-Band systems to the cheaper 75 Ohm technology and F-Connectors allowed the early satellite television receivers to use, what were in reality, modified UHFtelevision tuners which selected the satellite television channel for down conversion to another lower intermediate frequency centered on 70 MHz where it was demodulated. This shift allowed the satellite television DTH industry to change from being a largely hobbyist one where receivers were built in low numbers and complete systems were expensive (costing thousands of dollars) to a far more commercial one of mass production.

Direct broadcast satellite dishes are fitted with an LNBF, which integrates the feed horn with the LNB.

In the United States, service providers use the intermediate frequency ranges of 950-2150 MHz to carry the signal to the receiver. This allows for transmission of UHF band signals along the same span of coaxial wire at the same time. In some applications (DirecTV AU9-S and AT-9), ranges the lower B-Band and upper 2250-3000 MHz, are used. Newer LNBFs in use by DirecTV referred to as SWM (Single Wire Multiswitch), See also Single Cable Distribution, use a less limited frequency range of 2-2150 MHz.

The satellite receiver or set-top box demodulates and converts the signals to the desired form (outputs for television, audio, data, etc.). Sometimes, the receiver includes the capability to unscramble or decrypt the received signal; the receiver is then called an integrated receiver/decoder or IRD. The cable connecting the receiver to the LNBF or LNB should be of the low loss type RG-6, quad shield RG-6 or RG-11, etc. RG-59 is not recommended for this application as it is not technically designed to carry frequencies above 950 MHz, but will work in many circumstances, depending on the quality of the coaxial wire.

A practical problem relating to satellite home reception is that basically an LNB can only handle a single receiver. This is due to the fact that the LNB is mapping two different circular polarizations – right hand and left hand – and in the case of the K-band two different reception bands – lower and upper – to one and the same frequency band on the cable. Depending on which frequency a transponder is transmitting at and on what polarization it is using, the satellite receiver has to switch the LNB into one of four different modes in order to receive a specific desired program on a specific transponder. This is handled by the receiver using the DiSEqC protocol to control the LNB mode. If several satellite receivers are to be attached to a single dish a so-called multiswitch will have to be used in conjunction with a special type of LNB. There are also LNBs available with a multiswitch already integrated. This problem becomes more complicated when several receivers are to use several dishes (or several LNBs mounted in a single dish) pointing to different satellites.

A common solution for consumers wanting to access multiple satellites is to deploy a single dish with a single LNB and to rotate the dish using an electric motor. The axis of rotation has to be set up in the north-south direction and, depending on the geographical location of the dish, have a specific vertical tilt. Set up properly the motorized dish when turned will sweep across all possible positions for satellites lined up along the geostationary orbit directly above the equator. The disk will then be capable of receiving any geostationary satellite that is visible at the specific location, i.e. that is above the horizon. The DiSEqC protocol has been extended to encompass commands for steering dish rotors.

La Luna-

La Luna es el único satélite natural de la Tierra y la luna quinto más grande del Sistema Solar. Es el satélite natural más grande de un planeta en el Sistema Solar en relación al tamaño de su primario,  que tiene el 27% del diámetro y de 60 % de la densidad de la Tierra , dando lugar a 1/81 ( 1.23 %) de su masa. Entre los satélites con densidades conocidas, la Luna es el segundo más densa , después de Io, un satélite de Júpiter .

La Luna está en rotación síncrona con la tierra, mostrando siempre la misma cara con su cara cerca de marcado por Maria volcánica oscura que llenan entre las montañas corticales antiguas brillantes y los cráteres prominentes del impacto . Es el objeto más luminoso en el cielo después del sol. Aunque parece un blanco muy brillante , su superficie es en realidad oscura , con una reflectancia sólo ligeramente mayor que la de asfalto desgastado . Su prominencia en el cielo y su ciclo regular de fases , desde épocas antiguas , hecho la luna una influencia cultural importante en lengua, calendarios , arte y mitología. Influencia gravitacional de la luna produce las mareas del océano y el alargamiento minucioso del día. Distancia orbital actual de la Luna es de unos treinta veces el diámetro de la Tierra , haciendo que tenga un tamaño aparente en el cielo casi la misma que la del sol. Esto permite que la Luna cubra el Sun casi exacto en eclipse total de sol . Esta coincidencia de tamaño visual aparente es una coincidencia. Distancia lineal de la Luna de la Tierra está aumentando a un ritmo de 3.82 ± 0.07 cm por año , pero esta tasa no es constante. 

La Luna se cree que se formó hace cerca de 4,5 millones de años, no mucho después de la Tierra. Aunque ha habido varias hipótesis de su origen en el pasado, la actual explicación más aceptada es que la Luna se formó de los escombros que queda después de un impacto gigante entre la Tierra y un cuerpo del tamaño de Marte .

La Luna es el único cuerpo celeste que no sea la Tierra en la que los seres humanos han establecido actualmente pie. Programa Luna de la Unión Soviética fue el primero en llegar a la Luna con la nave espacial no tripulada en 1959 , el programa Apolo de la NASA de los Estados Unidos alcanzó las únicas misiones tripuladas a la fecha, comenzando con la primera tripulada misión en órbita lunar por el Apolo 8 en 1968 , y seis tripulada aterrizajes lunares entre 1969 y 1972 , con la primera siendo Apolo  . Estas misiones regresaron más de 380 kg de rocas lunares , que se han utilizado para desarrollar una comprensión geológica de origen de la Luna , la formación de su estructura interna, y su historia posterior .

Después de la misión Apollo 17 en 1972 , la Luna ha sido visitado por la nave espacial no tripulada . De éstas , las misiones orbitales han dominado : Desde 2004 , Japón , China, India, Estados Unidos, y la Agencia Espacial Europea han enviado orbitadores lunares cada uno , que han contribuido a confirmar el descubrimiento de hielo de agua lunar en cráteres permanentemente sombreados en los polos y limita en el regolito lunar. La era post- Apolo también ha visto dos misiones rover : la final de la misión Lunokhod Soviética en 1973 , y continua misión Chang'e 3 de China, que desplegó su rover Yutu el 14 de diciembre de 2013.

Las futuras misiones tripuladas a la Luna han sido planeadas , incluyendo el gobierno , así como los esfuerzos de financiación privada . La Luna sigue siendo , en el marco del Tratado sobre el Espacio Ultraterrestre , la libertad de todas las naciones para explorar para fines pacíficos .